Table 1 Baseline characteristics of study subjects after propensity score matching, where values are percentages unless stated otherwise

Follow-up (years; mean ± std)

5.56

± 3.86

6.24

± 4.15

0.169

Age (years; mean ± std)

43.9

± 17.1

43.4

± 16.1

0.027

Male

112,411

43.25

113,154

43.54

0.006

Type of insurance

0.000

 Healthcare insurance

250,074

96.22

250,233

96.28

 Medical aid

9595

3.69

9449

3.64

Residential district

0.000

 Metropolitan

139,908

53.83

140,636

54.11

 Urban

44,264

17.03

44,499

17.12

 Rural

75,090

28.89

74,159

28.53

Income level

0.000

 1st quartile

46,610

17.93

46,059

17.72

 2nd quartile

51,464

19.80

51,229

19.71

 3rd quartile

62,992

24.24

62,850

24.18

 4th quartile

83,323

32.06

84,424

32.48

Charlson Comorbidity Index (mean ± std)

0.36

± 0.78

0.35

± 0.78

0.011

 0

202,809

78.04

204,010

78.50

 1

31,040

11.94

30,658

11.80

 2

17,963

6.91

17,425

6.70

 3

7541

2.90

7272

2.80

 4

149

0.06

133

0.05

 ≥ 5

388

0.15

392

0.15

 Anxiety

4618

1.78

4560

1.75

0.002

 Cancer

3545

1.36

3468

1.33

0.003

 Cerebrovascular disease

4558

1.75

4482

1.72

0.002

 Chronic kidney disease

619

0.24

607

0.23

0.001

 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

8930

3.44

8659

3.33

0.006

 Dementia

1997

0.77

2012

0.77

0.001

 Diabetes mellitus

15,116

5.82

14,741

5.67

0.006

 Epilepsy

1071

0.41

1037

0.40

0.002

 Fractures

1327

0.51

1299

0.50

0.002

 Hypertension

27,875

10.73

26,808

10.32

0.013

 Hyperlipidemia

26,392

10.16

25,583

9.84

0.010

 Insomnia

7784

3.00

7547

2.90

0.005

 Ischemic heart disease

1534

0.59

1496

0.58

0.002

 Osteoarthritis

21,739

8.36

21,200

8.16

0.008

 Parkinson’s disease

221

0.09

201

0.08

0.003

 Rheumatoid arthritis

3656

1.41

3565

1.37

0.003

 Substance abuse

944

0.36

1021

0.39

0.005

 Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors

2036

0.78

1961

0.75

0.003

 Angiotensin II receptor blockers

15,077

5.80

14,664

5.64

0.007

 Anticholinergics

25,843

9.94

25,751

9.91

0.001

 Antiplatelets and anticoagulants

19,241

7.40

18,730

7.21

0.008

 Antipsychotics

1997

0.77

1926

0.74

0.003

 Anticonvulsants

4345

1.67

4363

1.68

0.001

 Digoxin

340

0.13

345

0.13

0.001

 Non-insulin glucose-lowering agents

8765

3.37

8607

3.31

0.003

 Anti-inflammatory analgesics

101,017

38.87

100,937

38.84

0.001

 β-blockers

10,291

3.96

9616

3.70

0.014

 Calcium channel blockers

16,733

6.44

16,063

6.18

0.011

 Insulin

885

0.34

872

0.34

0.001

 Lipid-lowering agents

14,689

5.65

14,207

5.47

0.008

 Narcotic analgesics

62,273

23.96

61,439

23.64

0.008

 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

139,850

53.51

139,982

53.84

0.001

 Other anxiolytics

14,899

5.73

14,851

5.71

0.001

 Thiazide diuretics

10,403

4.00

9949

3.83

0.009